Maori is known to be a Malayo-Polynesian language, but has deeper connections with the Austro-Thai group (Benedict 1975). The name Thai (Maori tai "sea, coast, tide") is common in China, Thailand and Hong Kong. Places called Taiping are found in both China and Malaysia. There is however a place called Taï on the Ivory Coast of Africa, and a Niger-Congo language called Taita. India has a mausoleum called the Taj Mahal. The Niger-Congo root *ta means "dwell". Maori taiao signifies "world, country". The Egyptian hieroglyph (N16) t3 means "land" (flat alluvial land with grains of sand beneath it is depicted). Maori rā "sun, day" matches Egyptian ra "sun, day", also Niger-Congo ra, la, d.a "sun, day". Genetics indicates an early migration out of Africa into Asia, and from Asia into the Pacific (Cavalli-Sforza). We can trace the Maoris back to Asia. They are thought to have come from Taiwan (root tai).
Other placenames tell the same tale: Bali (Cameroon), Bali (Indonesia); Sarawak (Indonesia), Sara (Nilo-Saharan) + Waka (Benue-Congo), Nandi (Nilo-Saharan tribe), and Nande (Niger-Congo), Nandi (Fiji); Samo (Mande language), Samoa (Pacific Island), Tonga (Benue-Congo language), Tonga (Pacific Island), Tafi (Kwa language), Tabi (Nilo-Saharan language), Tahiti (Polynesian Island). This last shows tai is from taCi (PPN *tahi, Tongan tahi, Fijian taci & tai "seacoast, shore").
The most reliable evidence for genetic language relationships, however, is morphology. In connecting Maori with the African languages (Niger-Congo, ex Nilo-Saharan) we can bring forward the following relevant data:
MAORI singular/plural ARTICLES
The Maori articles te (sing) and nga (pl) are the same as Bantu prefix classes de 5 (sing) and ga 6 (pl) , mentioned in Bendor-Samuel ed. (1989 : 9). The Gur form of ga is ŋa, exactly the same as the Maori. We posit a prehistoric form PrePNC **n-ga. Bryan's (Africa 1959) T/K singular/plural pronouns lie behind this distinction, showing it goes back into Nilo-Saharan. Articles develop from weakened personal pronouns. Whether these words should be called "articles" has been debated. Both Biggs (1969) and Bauer (2003) mention that they are class markers, ie classifiers. The N-C prefixes are really original classifiers. The Maori words te and nga are not always definite (Bauer 2003 : 147). Biggs notes that nga (plural) appears before some mass nouns such as "fire" and "water". But N-C prefix 6 is used of liquids such as water (6A, Williamson in Bendor-Samuel ed. 1989 38) and mass nouns in general (6B), usually in the form ma.
The curious range of meanings of Niger-Congo prefix 6 ma "plural, dual, mass, liquid, water, faeces" is also attested for this element in Maori : matariki "Pleiades", maihi "facing boards on gable", mata "eye(s)" (= "lights") , [Indonesian mata "eye(s)", Thai ta "eye"], māhanga "twins", maha, mano "multitude", māpu "herd", makawe "hair of head", mākū "wet", mānu "afloat", [but manu "bird", Indonesian manuk, Thai nok "bird"], marangai "rain" (E. dial.) ; ma is postposed in turuma "faeces" (compare postposed affixes in Gurma and Atlantic branches of N-C). The fluctuating length of the vowel goes back to N-C. This is the prefix best preserved from PNC into Kordofanian, regarded as very early Niger-Congo. It is no longer vital in Maori.
MAORI PERSONAL ARTICLE
The Maori personal article a must be from PWS ba [ba > wha > a], seen in Bantu class 2, ba, wa (E. Bantu), a (personal plural). Maori has lost semivocalic wh- on this word, which meant "person", and is used in PWS as both singular pronoun and plural prefix. This is a very significant detail indeed. As in N-C the prefixes occur before pronouns, so too in Maori if certain prepositions precede (Bauer 2003 : 143) a is required. "I" (ahau, awau) is an exception, as it already incorporates a leading a-.
In Bantu class 2 ba has a matching singular class 1 mu > gwu, often reduced to N-C u. This prefix u- perhaps occurs in Maori uha "female element", uri "offspring" (or u = "breast"), and begins certain mythological names (Uenuku "a war god"), but usually lacks personal meaning : uhi "tattooing needle" (PWS ki(n) "needle"), uku "a fish" (= Bantu cu(i), PWN KHUINI "fish"), uma "bosom", umu "earth oven", ure "penis" ("tail"?), uru "head", singular only (= PWS du, lu "head"), utu "revenge" etc. Compare prefix 3 in N-C, also u-, but not of persons.
The semantic categories, based largely on Bantu, do not fit exactly. This u- appears to favour singulars, as it did in N-C. The use of a- for both singular and plural also fits the general N-C data. Thus Guang has bā, obā "some, someone", ba "they", but Tschi abeny "they" (-ni pl) ; perhaps we should compare Maori whae "madam", whaea "aunt" (whāea plural in some dialects) āwhai "spouse", and with u-, uwha "female animal, sow" or "woman". But PWS also has bá [with acute accent] "chief, sire, father", Maori pā "Sir" [with long vowel = PWS acute] ; with prefix, apa "slave", "company of workmen or slaves", but also "spirit of one dead inspiring a medium". Apart from the accentuation this appears to be the same word. The word ipo means "darling". Probably related to ba "child" (Adamawa-Eastern).
[The distinction between wh < b (fem) and p < b (masc) in these words may be due to the ancient central African practice (eg Tlingit) of mutilating the lips of women (Jakobson in Troubetzkoy 1949 : 370). Women could not speak on the marae, and wore tattoos around the mouth. They were not allowed to eat human flesh. In Africa women were denied human flesh, on the grounds that they had no soul. Niger-Congo had fortis & lenis stops, b, bh etc.]
MAORI INDEFINITE ARTICLE
The Maori indefinite article he "a, some" appears to be from PWS ka "flesh, beast" [k > h, a > e]. Westermann (1927 : 303) derives the prefix ka/ke "Tiere, Deminutive" from this root. Such a view fits the notion that N-C prefixes come from classifiers. The Benue-Congo language So (Cameroon) has a parallel language heSo (eSo) in the Congo, with this element. Compare He-rero (B-C). Also Heiban = He + Iban (Kordofanian), and, with k, Keiga = Ke-iga (Kordofanian). Maori has heketua "privy", hewa "bald" (PWS kuá "be bald", Yoruba ekpa "baldness"), heru "hair comb", uru "head".
FOSSILISED N-C ARTICLE
Many Maori nouns end in -ra, but verbs seldom have this termination. Example kumara (PWS ku "yam"), with ma "mass". One suspects that -ra = the N-C postposed article/demonstrative -la, -ra, -a which tends to be lost or fossilised in most historical Niger-Congo languages. It is practically non-existent in Bantu. This element goes back into Nilo-Saharan, and indeed back to Afro-Asiatic, as can be seen from ossified survivals in Arabic (and even in Caucasian !) proper names. Malay "emphasises" nouns by adding -lah.
Maori also has the Niger-Congo formant PWS na "this", seen in tēnā "there", but used after words and clauses to indicate "position near" (Williams). In Niger-Congo this becomes a second article, and is attached after placenames.
THE N-C DEFINITE
There are survivals in Niger-Congo of a definite in postposed -i. The feature is most common in Mande languages, (sporadic in Kwa), but also crops up in Nilo-Saharan (Songhai dem/art
-di, Meroitic article -li). Compare the Swahili preposed demonstrative ndi-. It seems to occur on Maori nouns such as wai "water", tai "sea(coast)", kai "food", but also on pai "good", wai "who?", mai "hither", even verbs whai "follow" etc. As far as verbs are concerned, it is worth remembering that TogoR suffixes -i to verbs.
We conclude that the Maori articles all come from an early African language, which we provisionally call Pre-PNC. Westermann's PWS is an approximation of this. Maori appears close in some ways to Mande, an early (disputed) subgroup of Niger-Congo, connected by some with Songhai (Nilo-Saharan).
OLD PLURAL SUFFIXES
Mande languages have a plural suffix -ri. Outside Mande in Temne (Atlantic) kabari "twins", Kissi (Gur) bir "breast(s)"; often on tribal names, especially in Nigeria : Itsekiri (Yoruba), Gbanziri (Adamawa-Eastern). We find this ri preserved in Maori tamariki "children" : tama + ri + ki, with singular tamaiti. The same suffix occurs in Matariki "Pleiades", again followed by -ki, also a plural marker (Maori kī "full", "crowded" [with reduplication]. The -ki is from PWS gi "to fill, be full", used as a plural in Nilo-Saharan Aramanik, in Benue-Congo Baloki, Bunaki, Jaranci = Gingwak (reduced to -k), likewise Bedik (Atlantic). The reduced form -k is ancestor of the Indo-European plural in -s. Such linguistic fossils are historically important.
NEGATIVE
The Maori negative begins with the element kā (kāhore, kāo "no", kiāno, kāhore, anō "not yet") . Compare PWS ka "not", Nupe kà-mo "not". Originally the hand ka was held up to indicate "no". The negative imperative kei is also from PWS ka. (see Biggs 1969: 92). Malay bukan "not" (prefixed) The use of Maori me to indicate weak imperatives must derive from PWS mà "not", also me. (see Biggs 1969: 61, on Maori).
FOCUS MARKER
The Maori focus marker ko, used before proper names, pronouns and common nouns preceded by a definitive, appears to be from PWS ka (ko) "finger, hand". It conveys the notion of pointing.
POSITIVE
In Maori āe means "yes" (but "no" to affirm negatives). This must be equivalent to Swahili "yes", Soko heeye, Bangi, Poto, Ngombe e "yes". Problematic Maori e has various obscure meanings (See Williams' Dictionary), which can often be explained from an original affirmative, eg E2 "why, of course".
POSSESSIVE
Maori has a dominant possessive na "of, by", also a subordinate possessive no "of". This is the PWS root ná "to give", used as a sign of the dative (possibly also PWS na "upon"). The forms ma and mo indicate possession not yet realised (Biggs 1969: 57). Datives and possessives are very similar (Biggs 1969: 54). The short forms a and o "of" are the same words with loss of the initial consonant.
ALLATIVE
Maori ki "motion, towards, to", is cognate with PWS kia "to go", but lacks the final (added) vowel.
LOCATIVE
Maori i "at" is for PWS mi "in", or ni "in", with loss of the initial consonant. The Nupe form is nimi "in, inside". It must have been unaccented or proclitic. Derivation from ni, nyi more likely.
PERSONAL PRONOUN
The Maori third singular personal pronoun ia is from PWS gi "this", with added a, an article (giving gia = *ghwia). The Polynesian Io "Supreme God" (also Rarotongan) is from PWS gu "he" + a (giving gua = *ghwua). This gives o, wo, yo (Ngala), iyo etc in various Niger-Congo languages, meaning "he". The male Supreme Being was originally African.
NUMERALS (Decimal System)
These are based on the hands, arms, legs etc. , and other objects such as sticks used for counting. (Compare the African use of brass rods). Methods varied from place to place. Fingers were progressively raised to show the numbers required, as mentioned eg by Beattie.
1. tahi < PWS ta "hand". Root tá is used for counting. PWS Root ki "small". Maori taki "rod", Bantu tonga "stick". Maori tao means "spear".
2. rua, compare PWS nú-(gu) "hand, finger" with PWS nùà "two" , gua "hand, arm" (two arms = 2, with consonant mutation of n-gu > r, as in Songhai > Sonrai). PWS Root gua = "much" (also "thirty" cowries). The -a is an old article.
3. toru < ta + ru (PWS du "head, top"). Or ru(a) "two" as above, with preceding ta > to.
4. whā < PWS bà "count", also "two", PWS búá "arm, hand, finger" (with a common form ba). A "hand" might be four fingers (without thumb). Early counting went "one, two, many" or even "one, many". Or "one, two, finish".
5. rima < Bantu lima "to end, extinguish" (PWS ma "finish"). "Five" finishes the hand.
6. ono < PWS nú "hand, arm" (hand of five + arm = 6 ?). Or the reference may be to using "two" hands to get the number.
7. whitu < (Bantu -tu is attached to tanda-tu "six"); -tu means "take away" bi "a little"(subtractive numbers) from "ten". Such subtractive numerals occur in Africa.
8. waru < PWS gua "hand, arm" + ru "top". Or "hands two", gua + ru(a) "two".
9. iwa < PWS guá "ten", but likewise used for "nine" in Gur languages. A "détail singulier"!
10. tekau or ngahuru. The latter has the plural article + PWS ku, seen in Bantu kumi "ten", "large number". Maori preserves kumi meaning "ten fathoms". For tekau compare Ewe a-sí d.èké "hand one", used for "nine". PWS ka means "hand, arm, finger, five".
That the Maori numerals come from Niger-Congo can be seen from their flexibility in word class ("statives" says Biggs) and their more or less optional use with prefixes such as ta, ka, ko (ka tahi, kotahi,tatahi). Both kotahi and tekau (used together for "ten") are nouns (so Biggs). In other words we have Niger-Congo nominal prefixes on numerals here.
Word meaning, Maori, Niger-Congo (PWS)
"all", katoa PWS ka "and" etc. Maori toa means "warriors", PWS ta, (to) "war" + article.
"and", ma, me, ā, hoki, PWS ka "say, and", kú "companion", PWS ma "this, the, who".
"animal", kararehe, PWS ka(ra).
"ashes", pungarehu Sua, Mel (Atlantic) i-bun, bulen "ashes"
"at", kai, kei, PWS kà "remain"
"axe", piau(iron), PWS pía "axe" (Not in Swadesh)
"axe" toki (stone), Bantu (Meeussen) tand "cut", PWS tè, (ta) "cut" + gi "cut". (Not Swadesh)
"back", muri, PWS ma "back", Guang (d) ga-mal ?
"bad", kino, PWS kì "abstain" (religious)
"bark", kiri, rākau, hiako, peha,
"because", na, no, mo, ta te mea
"belly", kōpū, puku, manawa , PWS ku "stomach", pu "stomach"
"big", nui, rahi, PWS kuì (kui > nui)
"bird", manu, PNC nu "bird", Thai nok (See Greenberg 1963: 14, 5), PWS ku "bird" (?)
"bite", ngau, kakai, PWS ká "bite", Tschi ka "to bite", !Kung (Khoisan !nai "to bite").
"black", mangu, pango
"blood", toto, PWS gia "blood", but Swahili damu "blood", Swahili mu-toto "child"
[d > t], (compare Songhai dje, ze "child" < "blood"). [Indonesian d.aγah, Li da:t "blood"].
"blow" (v), pupuhi, PWN PHUK, PHUD "to blow"
"bone", iwi, kōiwi ; also iwi "people", Perhaps PWS gù "kill, die", also Songai wi "to kill", (Hatsa (Khoisan) akwibi "young ones" [bi = "young"]; Maori wheua, PWS ge "skin"; also ua "backbone" from PWS kúá "bone" (Westermann has earlier kûpa, as in Bantu). Maori is not near Bantu. Probably Maori kōiwi is related to Hatsa akwibi (from *akwa-ibi).
"breathe", whakaeaea
"burn", kā,ngiha, PWS ka "charcoal or lighted charcoal"
"child", tamaiti, kōhungahunga, tama "male child", "children", tamariki PWS tá "father"
Maori pī "young bird or young warrior", PWS bí"child"
Maori wana "young shoot", PWS kúán "life" (both words also mean "sound"; in Niger-Congo wana is used for the "child king"). PWN GHWYAN. Malay anak "child" may be related.
"cloud", kapua
"cold", makariri, mātao, kōpeke
"come", haeremai, PWS ba "to be in a place, to come"; also Maori nau "come, go", PWS ná "come". Such double matches of synonyms are very significant.
"count", (ta)tau, PWS tá"to tell, enumerate"
"cut" (v), (ko)koti, hahae, tapahi, tope, PWS ká "to cut, wound", PWS tè "cut" (< *ta)
"day", rā, rangi, awatea, ao, PWS la "day", usually da "day"
"die", mate, hemo, PWS ma "to end", Indonesian matay "die" (Benedict connects "eye").
"dig", keri, ngaki, PWS li "to dig"
"dirty", paruparu, poke, PWS ba "slime"
"dog", kurī, kīrehe
"drink", inu, unu, PWS nu "to drink", PWS mìn "to drink"
"dry", maroke,
"dull", paru . Compare "dirty".
"dust", nehu, puehu. See "ashes"
"ear", taringa, PWS tiè "to hear", PNC to "ear" (Greenberg), Auen (Khoisan) ts'a "hear".
"earth", ao, oneone, PWS là "earth", sometimes with retroflex d., lost in ao.
"eat", kai, PWS ká"to bite", Songhai mê "mouth" (Malay makan), !Kung !nai "to bite".
"egg", hua manu, hēki, PWS gìà, gì, "egg". PWS pu "white" also "throw out", or NC *ku "grow".
"eye", kanohi, karu, mata, PWS nù "eye", Tschi e-nyua "eye", Akpafu nyõ "see"; mata < ma + ta "lights" (or connected with mata "die"; eyes were plucked out before death).
"fall" (v), rere, taka PWS la "to lie down, to sleep"
"family", (distant family) inc. "bear, be born", whānau, Bantu *biad "give birth", Koke (Adamawa-Eastern) ba "child", (Khoisan Sandawe haba "beget", Hiechware Naron (C) aba: "beget"). As usual Maori wh = b. This important item links Maori with Adamawa-Eastern & Khoisan.
"far", i/kei tawhiti
"fat", ngako, hinu
"father", pāpā, matua tāne, PWS bábá "father", Songhai bàba "father"
"fear" (v), mataku (ie "death")
"feather", hou, huruhuru, piki, PWS pí, pú "feather"
"few", torutoru, ouou
"fight" (v), whawhai, riri, PWS guà "to break, rend, smite"
"fire", ahi, kāpura, PNC pi "fire", PWN PI "burn", PPN *api "fire"; PWS ka "charcoal"
"fish", ika, ngohi, PWS ka "flesh, fish". The Maori ika also refers to a slain warrior, sacrificial victim etc. Animal flesh was not available in NZ.
"five", rima, PNC ma "make, end", PWS mua "to grasp" (action of hand), Indonesian lima.
PWS has lí "ten", Ahlo ú-kà-lí "nine", = "prefix-hand-one". Here li/ri = "one", ma = "end".
"float", mānu, rewa, PNC ma "liquid"
"flow", rere, pātere, Yoruba ra "fall of rain"
"flower", pūāwai, putiputi, PWS pu "to appear, come out", PWS pú "bush, field"
"fly" (v), rere, topa,
"fog", kohu, pūkohu (with prefix), PWS (m)-bu "dew", Alege (B-C) ke-bu "dew"
"foot", waewae, PWS kua "leg, foot"
"four", whā, PWS búá "hand, arm" (ie four fingers)
"freeze", whakahaupapatia, tōtoka
"fruit", hua, PWS pu "to appear"
"give", hōmai, hoatu, PWS ka "hand" (action of hand), PWS gua "hand"
"good", pai PWS pai "full" ?
"grass", karāihe, pātītī, tarutaru
"green", kākāriki
"guts", whēkau (see "belly")
"hair", makawe, huruhuru , PWS pú "hair", PWS ge "skin" (we)
"hand", ringaringa, (see rima "five")
"he", ia, PWS gi(a) "this"
"head", upoko, mātenga, māhunga, pane, Songhai bo(n) "head", Mel -bomp "head"
"hear", rongo, Soninke toro "ear"
"heart", manawa , PWS na "fire". See Maori ina "warm oneself"
"heavy", taimaha, toimaha, taumaha PWS ta "thing", "carry"
"here", konei, PWS ni "this", Dagomba nyi-ne "this", Malinke nîn "this".
"hit", pā, patu,PWS puà "to strike" [ua > a?], Ahlo pò "to strike".
"hold/take", (pu)puri, (ra)rawhi
"how", pē(w)hea
"hunt", whaiwhai, whakangau , PWS ba "to come"
"husband", tāne , PWS tá "father"
"I", ahau, au, awau, probably from PWS kúá "man/slave", Songhai ai "I"
" ice", hukapapa
"if", ki, ma, me,mehemea
"in", hei, kei, ki, no
"kill", patu, PWS puà "to strike". See "hit".
"know", mātau, mōhio, kite, PNC me, ma, "know"
"lake", roto, PNC tua > to "water", ra "flow"
"laugh" (v), kata rau
"left", mauī
"leg", waewae PWS kua "leg"
"lie", takoto
"live" (v), ora, PWS la, da "day"
"liver", ate
"long", roa, PNC lo "long", da "be long"
"louse", kutu
"man/male", tāne(see under husband)
"many", maha, tini, huhua, PWS gà "hundred"
"meat/flesh", kikokiko PWS ka "meat", Ahlo ika, Animere ke-ka "flesh" [a > o]
"mother", matua wahine, whaea, kōkā, Koke ba "child", Bantu *biad "give birth", Bantu kádi "woman", PCS ko "woman", PWS kì "woman", PWS nà "mother"
"mountain", maunga
"name", ingoa PWS ni "name"
"narrow", whāiti ("small place")
"near", tata, pātata
"neck", kakī, also ua "neck, back of neck" from PWS kùà "neck", (Westermann gives Bantu koti).
"new", hōu
"night", pō, PWS pu "empty, void", pol "empty"
"nine", iwa, PWS gua "ten", Songhai i-wa-i "ten", but Gur languages, like Maori, use forms of this word for "nine" ! Not in Swadesh.
"nose", ihu, PWS nyu "nose" ?,( Khoisan has //Ku E// /nutu, /Nusan (S) /nudu "nose").
Probably pūrero is relevant. [pu > hu, ie *phu]
"not", kā(h)ore, kore, PNC ka "not"
"old", tawhito,PWS tá "finish", with whi = bi "give birth"
"one", tahi, PWS ta "hand, finger"
"other", atu , PWS tù "approach" ?
"person", koiwi PWS kua "person" + iwi, (Nama Hottentot khoi "person", /Xam (S) !kwi "person"). There appear to be a few links between Maori and Khoisan. I regard Khoisan as related distantly to Niger-Congo. See iwi "bone".
"say" kōrero "say", karakia "spell", PWS ká, kán "speak", PWS guè "voice", (Khoisan Sandawe ga, !O !Kung (N) ka, Nama Hottentot (C) gawa, gowa, /Xam (S) ka "say"). Maori kō is used of birds singing, but also of shouting, Maori koā means "indeed" ("say"?). This important word goes back to a time when voiced & voiceless stops were not distinguished. There is a clear link with Khoisan here.
This preliminary enquiry has serious implications for Niger-Congo research. Maori preserves some of the oldest words (including synonyms) in these languages. Lexical links exist with Gur, Adamawa Eastern, Togo Remnant (much of which is thought to be extinct), Bantu (a very important prefix pair connects Bantu), but also with Khoisan and Nilo-Saharan, not to mention Ancient Egyptian. Khoisan is probably nearer to Niger-Congo than has been thought. Its "click" sounds, mainly word-initial, are probably reduced "prefixes" from Niger-Congo or Pre-Niger-Congo. Greenberg (1963 : 84) mentions that "many Hatsa nouns begin with ha-, ho-, or hi-." These "demonstratives" equate with Niger-Congo prefixes in Westermann. The importance of Maori is that it establishes that Malayo-Polynesian (and Austro-Thai) came ultimately from Africa, and belong to Pre-Proto-Niger-Congo. The Polynesian (and Austro-Thai) languages are mainly VSO in their word order, as are certain Nilo-Saharan languages = Chari-Nile, Eastern Sudanic (Turkana, Nandi, Lotuko, Didinga, Masai). Nandi recalls Fijian Nandi. Some Afro-Asiatic languages also have SVO (Ancient Egyptian, Ge'ez, Iraqi Arabic (written)). All African languages are related, and have a common origin.
It must be emphasised that in deep comparative work of this kind it is not often possible to use "full word" comparisons, as recommended by Lyle Campbell and others. Optional prefixes (especially vocalic), infixation, mobility of elements and "consonant mutation" have to be taken into account, along with consonant and vowel loss.
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